Metal lattice plasma and nuclear fusion

An updaed and abbreviated version ////

 The role metal lattice plasma could play in Cold Fusion//

Stanislaw A. Surma: a@*, Mohammad M. Allaham: bc, Antoni Ciszewski: a&, Marwan S. Mousa: d
a University of Wroclaw, Institute of Experimental Physics, Plac Maxa Borna 9, 50-204 Wroclaw, Poland
b Institute of Scientific Instruments of Czech Academy of Sciences, Kralovopolska 147, 612 64 Brno, Czech Republic
c Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkynova 123, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
d Department of Physics, Mutah University, Al-Karak 61710, Jordan
 
@ emeritus Specialist; Dr n. fiz.
& emeritus Prof. Dr hab.
*corresponding author, e-mail: stan.surma5@gmail.com

Abstract
In this research, discussion will include the effect of Cold nuclear Fusion (CF) which was claimed by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989, had not been backed by theory, and initially appeared to be impossible [1]. The conventional nuclear fusion is to produce the ‘clean’ electric energy, but feasible projects are still aiming at future implementation. The low cost CF option has been a delayed topic, but studies of CF associated effects such as those for solid state accelerators are proceeding at some research centers. Pines’ group have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Also the Widom-Larsen neutron theory has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect [2]. A new metamaterial design of thin metallic wires in a threedimensional lattice with the period of order of millimeters for far infrared optics applications was proposed by Pendry’s group in 1996. Shapiro’s group proposed a three-dim metallic wire lattice for solid state accelerator applications. In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in heavy water. In 2016, Mironov claimed that Ni and Cu underwent nuclear conversion under highvoltage bombardment of the cathode [3]. Basing on such results and former ones of ours (Mousa’s group from the 1980s), we anticipate that the low-temperature plasma in a metallic wire structure coated with catalytic films or powders next deuterated, can play an essential role in some CF associated effects such as photodissociation of deuterons. We also suggest that the metal-lattice confinement fusion in the H and/or D water could occur by using the Shapiro nets. Those might be irradiated or bombarded, owing to the properties of the bicomponent metal lattice plasma (MLP) as the medium of electric charge and energy carriers, with local electron number densities of ~1029 per cubic meter and fields ~100 GV/m at the polarized surface.

The role the bicomponent metal lattice plasma could play in Cold Fusion** ////

Stanislaw A. Surma: a@*, Mohammad M. Allaham: bc, Antoni Ciszewski: a&, Marwan S. Mousa: d

a University of Wroclaw, Institute of Experimental Physics, Plac Maxa Borna 9, 50-204 Wroclaw, Poland
b Institute of Scientific Instruments of Czech Academy of Sciences, Kralovopolska 147, 612 64 Brno, Czech Republic
c Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkynova 123, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
d Department of Physics, Mutah University, Al-Karak 61710, Jordan
 
@ Dr n. fiz., emeritus Specialist. & emeritus Prof. Dr hab.

*corresponding author, e-mail: stan.surma5@gmail.com
**updated

Abstract

In this research, discussion will include the effect of Cold nuclear Fusion (CF) which was claimed by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989, had not been backed by theory, and initially seemed impossible [1]. The conventional nuclear fusion is to produce the ‘clean’ electric energy, but feasible projects are still aiming at future implementation. The low cost CF option has been a delayed topic, but studies of CF associated effects such as those for solid state accelerators are proceeding at some research centers. Pines’ group have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Also the Widom-Larsen neutron theory has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect [2]. A new metamaterial design of thin metallic wires in a threedimensional lattice with the period of order of millimeters for far infrared optics applications was proposed by Pendry’s group in 1996. Shapiro’s group proposed a three-dim metallic wire lattice for solid state accelerator applications. In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in heavy water. In 2016, Mironov claimed that Ni and Cu underwent nuclear conversion under highvoltage bombardment of the cathode [3]. Basing on such results and former ones of ours (Mousa’s group from the 1980s), we anticipate that the low-temperature plasma in a metallic wire structure coated with catalytic films or powders next deuterated, can play an essential role in some CF associated effects such as photodissociation of deuterons. We also suggest that the metal-lattice confinement fusion in the H and/or D water could occur by using the Shapiro nets possibly irradiated or bombarded. Properties of the bicomponent metal lattice plasma (MLP) the medium of electric charge and energy carriers, with local electron number densities of ~1029 per cubic meter and fields ~100 GV/m at the polarized surface, may promote CF.

Introduction**

Authors of this paper are trying to evaluate the energy sources problem from own point of view. Energy security and eco-safety crisis escalates from the turn of 20th century and causes seeking a safe and eco-friendly energy very urgent. Global 2019 energy output of high carbon sources (oil + coal + gas) was ca 84 % vs. the 16 % of low-carbon sources with a 4.3 % by nuclear ones [4]. Fossil fuel must be gradually reduced. Progress goes in employing the ‘green’ energy sources, but environmental pollution still grows in their full life cycle including production stage. Meanwhile, nuclear power plants cause problems of harmful nuclear waste storage and in safety issues. Thus, all nuclear power plants in Germany have gone into liquidation.

Best solution to those problems may come from Cold nuclear Fusion or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (CF/LENR) [5]. H and D isotopes in water or D2O could be the clean and inexhaustible fuel. The CF option may ensure low-cost electricity and power for industry, household and transport on the ground, by sea, air. We shall briefly present a background to a template for experimental studies. The room-temperature CF effect of deuterium, during electrolysis in a calorimeter set filled with D2O solutions of alkaline salts, claimed by Fleischmann and Pons [1] was based on investigating the anomalous cathodic sorption of H into Pd crystal lattice. Simultaneously, a rival Jones’ group announced their results [6]. Next, inventors as Cravens and Rossi submitted patents on CF based devices. Attempts to confirm the effect by other workers yielded rather unreproducible both positive and negative results. The effect seemed impossible until theoretical papers had appeared [2]; Pines-Steinetz’ group performed theoretical and experimental work [2]. Mayers et al. reported their experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in D2O [5]; the discovery gave the premise of room-temperature fusion. Solid state accelerators with intrinsic electrostatic fields offer an alternative to the magnetic field or inertial confinement of energetic particles to obtain nuclear fusion. In the 2000s, Geuther-Danon’s group investigated D-absorbed pyroelectric crystals as the high energy X-ray and neutron sources for medical applications, and Putterman et al. of UCLA observed nuclear fusion occurring in pyroelectric devices via thermal excitation of the crystal [5]. Metamaterial useful to apply as ray sheathing lenses was proposed by Pendry; Shapiro et al. employed the concept to an artificial structure of three-dim metallic wire lattice for electron acceleration [7].

In 1986, Latham and Mousa observed the electron field-emission spectral shift due to the composite metal/insulator mechanism of hot electrons emission from micropoint arrays (a metamaterial). In 1994, Mousa noted the influence of hydrogen gas discharge plasma on the field emission properties of needle arrays under ultrahigh vacuum conditions [8]. Then, we studied a variety of published experimental data on electron workfunction from standard methods, as well as the properties of metal lattice plasma (MLP), and have proposed the screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential at the surface of metal [9]. It seems reasonable to anticipate that the MLP in the Shapiro type three-dim wire system would be an interesting subject of investigating some CF-associated effects. In the next chapters, we present a short critique of CF work.

stare:

The authors of this paper, experimental physicists, are trying to evaluate the hot problems of energy sources from their own point of view. Energy security and eco-safety crisis, which is escalating from the turn of the 20th century, causes seeking a safe and eco-friendly energy to be very urgent. The global 2019 energy output of high carbon sources (i.e. oil + coal + gas) was in excess of 84 % vs. the 16 % of low-carbon sources with the 4.3 % contribution by nuclear ones.^1/ It is beyond doubt that fossil fuel combustion should be gradually reduced. There has been steady progress in employing the ‘green’ energy sources, but environmental pollution still is growing in their full life cycle including production stage. On the other side, nuclear (fission) power plants are causing serious problems of harmful nuclear waste storage, and also in safety issues. Due to this, all nuclear power plants in Germany go into liquidation at the present time (although an extension of few years for some of these plants is done as energy sources are getting sort of scarce).

The possible solution to those problems may come from Cold nuclear Fusion or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (CF/LENR).^2/ The isotopes H and D, present in water or heavy water, could be the clean and inexhaustible fuel. Such CF option may ensure low-cost electricity and power for industry, household and transport on the ground, by sea and air.

The effect of room-temperature CF of deuterium , as occurring at electrolysis in a calorimeter set filled with heavy water solutions of alkaline salts, was claimed by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989.^3/ In the course of investigating the anomalous sorption of hydrogen into palladium crystal lattice, they were to observe portions of excess heat (excess enthalpy) produced in or at the Pd cathode.^3-6/ At the same time, a rival Jones’ group announced their own results.^7/ Next, Cravens and Rossi submitted a few patents on CF based devices, which notified of energy positive output.^8,9/ Attempts to confirm the effect claimed in several papers by other workers yielded rather unreproducible both positive and negative results.

The effect seemed to be impossible until theoretical papers had appeared, e.g.^10,11/ Among others, the Pines-Steinetz group^10,12/ had NASA funding. The authors^10/ have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Preliminary experimental results seemed to confirm their prediction.^12/ The Widom-Larsen neutron theory^11/ has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect, too. A theoretical study on the response of thick two-dimensional electron plasma slabs to incident light was carried out by Hoyer and colleagues.^13/ In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their finding the experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in samples of heavy water,^14/ which discovery gave the premise of room-temperature fusion.

Solid state accelerators using intrinsic electrostatic fields offer an alternative to the magnetic field or inertial confinement of energetic particles for obtaining nuclear fusion. Chen and colleagues proposed the mechanism of plasma electrons acceleration via longitudinal channeling for application to solid-state accelerators.^15/ In the 2000s, Danon’s research group investigated deuterium absorbed pyroelectric crystals as the high energy X-ray and neutron sources, dry cell battery heated, for medical applications.^16/ Putterman and colleagues of California observed nuclear fusion occurring in similar pyroelectric devices via thermal excitation of the crystal.^17/ A sort of metamaterial with novel properties, useful to apply as electromagnetic wave controlling or ray-sheathing lenses, was proposed by Pendry and colleagues.^18/ Shapiro and colleagues have employed the concept to the artificial structure of three-dimensional metallic wire lattice for acceleration of electrons.^19/

Metal-Lattice Plasma (MLP), i.e. the free electron gas in solids, has been a well-established notion in solid state physics.^20-22/ In 1986, Latham and Mousa observed experimentally the electron field-emission spectral shift due to the composite metal/insulator mechanism of hot electrons emission from micropoint arrays (a sort of metamaterial).^23/ In 1994, Mousa reported finding the influence of hydrogen gas discharge plasma on the field emission properties of microneedle arrays noted under ultrahigh vacuum conditions;^24/ about arrays also see, for instance, Wang.^25/ Then, we studied a variety of published experimental data on electron emission (work function of an electron) from standard methods, as well as the properties of MLP, and have proposed the screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential at the surface of metal.^26-28/ It seems reasonable to anticipate that the MLP in the Shapiro type three-dimensional wire system would be an interesting subject of investigating some CF-associated effects. In the next chapter, briefly described is our choice of bibliography on the limited CF area.

Unabridged article Introduction 

Summary

 Latham and Mousa noted the electron field-emission spectral shift due to the metal/insulator mechanism of electron emission from needle metamaterial; Mousa studied the H gas discharge plasma in needle arrays [8]. Then, based on electron workfunction available data we proposed the screened electrostatic potential. We conclude that MLP in Shapiro three-dim wire nets can promote room-temperature CF [9]. Essays by Erik Rakhou and Rosa Puentes show the actual production and applications of H fuel [10]. N.B. Reactor volume of ca. 10³ cm³ (calorimeter size) can contain ~1 g of deuterium vs. 1 mg in the typical inertial confinement plasma huge volume. CF of H or D nuclei may fatally affect the global economy, transport and military factors. Thus, the U.S. DOE accepted a report by the CF Panel of E.R.A.B. (affected by co-chair Huyzenga's viewpoint) in 1989 to suspend the topic.

Conclusion

We suggest the MLP plasma in the artificial net covered with deuterated films or Ni, Cu powders may play a catalytic role in the metal lattice confinement fusion. Properties of MLP would allow for attaining an arbitrarily large amount of fusion excess enthalpy. The low-temperature MLP in the Shapiro nets could promote CF-associated effects like photodissociation of deuterons at room temperature.

Acknowledgement: S.A.S. thanks Dr. Jan Szymanski the biologist for advice, and Mr. Grzegorz Michalowski for discussions on perovskite solar cells. M.M.A. thanks Dr. Knápek for discussions and advice.

High purity polyethylene for the samples used in several former works on the W-PE system by S.A.S. and A. Karpowicz, and S. Gluchowski, came from Wroclaw Technical University. From among authors of the present work, S.A.S. would like to thank Dr. Jan Szymański the biologist and inventor of Poland and Sweden for valuable correspondence. He also thanks Mr. Grzegorz Michalowski for discussions on proton conductivity. M.M.A. gratefully expresses his heartfelt thanks to Dr. Knápek for discussions on literature.

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62/ Z. L. Wang, and J. H. Song, Science, 312, 242–246 (2006).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7166455_Piezoelectric_Nanogenerators_Based_on_Zinc_Oxide_Nanowire_Arrays DOI: 10.1126/science.1124005

electron number densities ~10²⁹ m^–3 and fields ~100 GV/m at the polarized surface.

 

I.         INTRODUCTION

The authors of this paper, experimental physicists, are trying to evaluate the hot problems of energy sources from their own point of view. Energy security and eco-safety crisis, which is escalating from the turn of the 20th century, causes seeking a safe and eco-friendly energy to be very urgent. The global 2019 energy output of high carbon sources (i.e. oil + coal + gas) was in excess of 84 % vs. the 16 % of low-carbon sources with the 4.3 % contribution by nuclear ones.^1/ It is beyond doubt that fossil fuel combustion should be gradually reduced. There has been steady progress in employing the ‘green’ energy sources, but environmental pollution still is growing in their full life cycle including production stage. On the other side, nuclear (fission) power plants are causing serious problems of harmful nuclear waste storage, and also in safety issues. Due to this, all nuclear power plants in Germany go into liquidation at the present time (although an extension of few years for some of these plants is done as energy sources are getting sort of scarce).

The possible solution to those problems may come from Cold nuclear Fusion or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (CF/LENR).^2/ The isotopes H and D, present in water or heavy water, could be the clean and inexhaustible fuel. Such CF option may ensure low-cost electricity and power for industry, household and transport on the ground, by sea and air.

The effect of room-temperature CF of deuterium , as occurring at electrolysis in a calorimeter set filled with heavy water solutions of alkaline salts, was claimed by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989.^3/ In the course of investigating the anomalous sorption of hydrogen into palladium crystal lattice, they were to observe portions of excess heat (excess enthalpy) produced in or at the Pd cathode.^3-6/ At the same time, a rival Jones’ group announced their own results.^7/ Next, Cravens and Rossi submitted a few patents on CF based devices, which notified of energy positive output.^8,9/ Attempts to confirm the effect claimed in several papers by other workers yielded rather unreproducible both positive and negative results.

The effect seemed to be impossible until theoretical papers had appeared, e.g.^10,11/ Among others, the Pines-Steinetz group^10,12/ had NASA funding. The authors^10/ have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Preliminary experimental results seemed to confirm their prediction.^12/ The Widom-Larsen neutron theory^11/ has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect, too. A theoretical study on the response of thick two-dimensional electron plasma slabs to incident light was carried out by Hoyer and colleagues.^13/ In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their finding the experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in samples of heavy water,^14/ which discovery gave the premise of room-temperature fusion.

Solid state accelerators using intrinsic electrostatic fields offer an alternative to the magnetic field or inertial confinement of energetic particles for obtaining nuclear fusion. Chen and colleagues proposed the mechanism of plasma electrons acceleration via longitudinal channeling for application to solid-state accelerators.^15/ In the 2000s, Danon’s research group investigated deuterium absorbed pyroelectric crystals as the high energy X-ray and neutron sources, dry cell battery heated, for medical applications.^16/ Putterman and colleagues of California observed nuclear fusion occurring in similar pyroelectric devices via thermal excitation of the crystal.^17/ A sort of metamaterial with novel properties, useful to apply as electromagnetic wave controlling or ray-sheathing lenses, was proposed by Pendry and colleagues.^18/ Shapiro and colleagues have employed the concept to the artificial structure of three-dimensional metallic wire lattice for acceleration of electrons.^19/

Metal-Lattice Plasma (MLP), i.e. the free electron gas in solids, has been a well-established notion in solid state physics.^20-22/ In 1986, Latham and Mousa observed experimentally the electron field-emission spectral shift due to the composite metal/insulator mechanism of hot electrons emission from micropoint arrays (a sort of metamaterial).^23/ In 1994, Mousa reported finding the influence of hydrogen gas discharge plasma on the field emission properties of microneedle arrays noted under ultrahigh vacuum conditions;^24/ about arrays also see, for instance, Wang.^25/ Then, we studied a variety of published experimental data on electron emission (work function of an electron) from standard methods, as well as the properties of MLP, and have proposed the screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential at the surface of metal.^26-28/ It seems reasonable to anticipate that the MLP in the Shapiro type three-dimensional wire system would be an interesting subject of investigating some CF-associated effects. In the next chapter, briefly described is our choice of bibliography on the limited CF area.

II.     SELECTED REPORTS on CF

The literature on the hot topic of CF is as large as hard to be found, and this review will be rather incomplete. Sources cited here may appear too subjective, but seem to be useful pieces of information on the present status of CF. Some popularizing science articles are also worth noting. The links may become inactive after a time, except for the webzines of interest.

A.       The present status of the CF phenomenon

The origins of the CF topic come, perhaps, from the scientific anticipation in the 1920s and 1930s as has been outlined by Britz in his article entitled Cold Fusion: An Historical Parallel.^29/ Prediction that water will be the source of energy to entirely replace coal was once done by Jules Verne (1828-1905) in one of his adventure novels L’Ile mysterieuse (The Mysterious Island).^30/ From reading, for instance, essays by Erik Rakhou and Rosa Puentes, one can learn about the present-day production, storage and applications of hydrogen.^31/ The CF topic itself is being regularly described on pages of some webzines.^{32- 34/}

However, the promising effect of cold nuclear fusion of H or D nuclei still remains a low-key phenomenon. The reason for is likely due to the real danger of deep crisis in global economy, transport and the governments’ policy on social and military factors – if the energy revolution were to come quick. Probably in view of that, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) accepted a report by the special Cold Fusion Panel of the Energy Research Advisory Board in 1989, which carefully suspended the topic.^35/

Anyway, research on some CF-associated topics, particularly touching military applications, e.g. in the sheathing or cloaking of objects to be invisible to radar,^41/,18/ and/or constructing CF devices for medical use,^16/,17/ have still been carried out. Research work, including Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reaction (LANR) and Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR), is performed by workers affiliated at more than a hundred of nuclear research centers – mainly from the USA, but also from the UK, Japan, Italy, and other countries. In 2013, a special web-journal devoted to experiment and theory of CF/LENR started in Russia, with some reports of 1990 not disclosed until 2020.^36/ In 2016, Mironov revealed to have attained the catalyzed nuclear conversion of powdered Ni or Cu isotopes under pulsed high voltage applied.^37/ In the same year, a review article on the water-bond photosplitting phenomenon was reported by Ryabchuk and colleagues.^38/

B.       Original reports on the CF-linked excess heat

The choice of the papers below may illustrate the complicated story of CF option. In the 1980s, Martin Fleischmann and Stan Pons investigated the anomalous hydrogen absorption in the palladium-deuterium-heavy water system, by using electrolysis in D₂O with palladium cathodes at room temperature. Both electrochemists supposed that prolonged polarization of palladium cathodes in heavy water would lead to excess heat (enthalpy) generation.

In 1989, they claimed to have observed a CF positive effect, and ascribed it to nuclear fusion.^3-6/ It was poorly evidenced in the paper and concluded that the enthalpy output was hundred times higher than that of chemical processes. This false start, committed under stress exerted by employers, was flouting scientific ethics due to violation of their agreement with rival Jones’ group to publish results simultaneously in the prestigious journal Nature.^7/ Confusion was growing after errata had been sent by the authors^3/ to their next paper^4/ with Marvin Hawkins’ name added to the previous authors list. As a result, controversy was widely arising. The excess heat output in their experiments was next either accounted for a usual chemical reaction or was assessed as being a humbug by some media affected researchers.

Jones’ group investigated the muon catalyzed nuclear fusion in the early1980s. Low-temperature nuclear fusion probably then got the label cold nuclear fusion. Before 1989 they had found a novel low-temperature way to induce nuclear fusion without intermediary muons, and quickly announced their finding in 1989.^7/ This was a study of electrolysis in the systems Pd/H₂O/D₂O and Ti/H₂O/D₂O. The paper’s title “Observation of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter” indicated that Steven Jones and colleagues had been certain of their discovery.

In 1990, Dennis Cravens applying for the U.S. patent claimed that his apparatus can provide a propulsion system for rockets, spacecraft and jets. The means was to consist in nuclear transformation of deuterium absorbed into a metal lattice. His application covered the CF energy effect used in his energy generating apparatus.^8/

In 2015, Andrea Rossi got the U.S. patent marked as Fluid Heater – after many attempts to patent the CF device based on the Ni/H system with several Ni isotopes.^9/ Rossi’s collaboration with professor Sergio Focardi gave a new impact to his concepts. That invention was once defined as the “Method and apparatus for carrying out nickel and hydrogen exothermic reaction”. In a 2010 article entitled A new energy source from nuclear fusion, Rossi and Focardi noted that no radiation from the device was detected. The Rossi-Focardi invention has been labeled as the Energy Catalyzer (E-Cat), see: Frank Acland in the Cold Fusion Now.^34/

C.       Some other reports

Most of published studies had obtained funding from government agencies. It should be noted, however, that the CF option has been still pending due to anticipated quite severe global consequences. On the other side, the topic of hydrogen storage and/or heavy water applications has been open for commercial reasons.^31/ We refer here to some reports about CF or associated effects, and add brief comments. The below order of appearance may suggest that the status of CF-associated topics undergoes a steady recovery over time.

In 1985, Chen and colleagues of the research group of John Dawson’s

announced their concept of a solid state accelerator using the channeling effect of the electron plasma.^15/ (The investigations were partly funded by U.S. DOE.) A detailed review of the channeling phenomenon occurring in the motion of charged particles through crystals was written by Gemmell.^39/

In 1986, Latham and Mousa demonstrated experimentally the field emission spectral shift, and to a smaller influence, the Full Width to the Half Maximum of these spectra are both functions of the field emitted current.^23/ Close results were reported by Mousa, Karpowicz and Surma of their studies of the composites W-epoxy resin and W-polyethylene, respectively, carried out by the techniques of high field, electron or hydrogen ion, microscopy.^40/ Those effects were interpreted as due to the hot-electron emission mechanism acting along the conducting channels in the dielectric coating, connected with the cleavage of C bonds and production of atomic hydrogen.

            In 1994, Mousa using the Field Emission Microscopy technique investigated the effect of hydrogen plasma on electron field-emission from microneedle arrays.^24/

In 1996, Pendry’s group proposed the model of an accelerating artificial metallic structure built of infinite very thin wires arranged in a simple cubic lattice with a cm period.^18/ It opened a new way to many applications to large objects, including military ones.^18/

In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported discovering the short-lasting capture of thermalized neutrons in the experiment on H₂O-D₂O mixtures, by using the Compton (inelastic) neutron scattering method.^14/ This discovery provided an essential evidence for room-temperature nuclear fusion.

In 2005;2006;2007, Shapiro and colleagues employed the Pendry artificial plasma model to study the microwave response of a photonic 3D metallic wire lattice to acceleration of plasma electrons.^19/

In 2006, Wood, Pendry, and Tsai reported the metamaterial design with its invisibility properties, such as electromagnetic waves cloaking (shielding). See also Wood and Pendry (2007).^42/

In 2006, Danon and colleagues reported their observation of 2.5 MeV neutrons in D-D fusion reaction occurring in a CF system of pyroelectric paired-crystal operated as the solid state accelerator. Also, they reported attaining the X-ray endpoint energies up to 215 keV with the use of this system. Noted were results of reproducible experiments yielding up to 10⁴ neutrons per a heating cycle.^16/ Let us notice that this technique provides a direct confirmation of our interpretation of electric field enhancement in the surface phase (in a slab) with the polarized low-temperature MLP.^27/

            In 2006, the Widom-Larsen theory was published.^11/ Its essential result indicates, for weak interactions and ultralow momentum neutrons, the possibility of CF with helium and tritium final products to be detected.

In 2006, Czerski and colleagues of Berlin and Szczecin laboratories presented results of their experimental and theoretical investigation of the electron screening of Coulomb potential.^43/ The experiment covered measurements of the screening energy in the range between 150 and 300 eV for the ²H(d,p)³H reaction in several metals from lithium to tantalum. Their study confirms that the electron screening is of great importance in the processes of the low temperature plasma locally thermalization.

In 2007, a theoretical study on light affected finite-size bicomponent plasma slabs by Hoyer and colleagues appeared.^13/ Their new approach to the electromagnetic field inside plasma indicates the classical behavior of two-dimensional electron plasma, which is of importance to possible plasma applications. It is interesting to note that semi-classical approaches like those of Hoyer’s and Pines’ to MLP obtain funds from military aimed agencies such as the U.S. DOD/ONR and AFOSR together with European and German ones.

In 2016, Mironov reported the exothermic conversion of supposedly Cu^63,65 into Zn^65,67 isotopes for the Cu/D system, and Ni^58-64 to Cu for the Ni/H system. Powdered cathodes were used under the applied pulsed high potential 15 kV; no such response was observed from other tested metals.^37/ A form of radiation was detected with the use of a dosimeter, and the Me-H/D coefficient of performance (COP) was over 20. There was also cited a similar result by J.L. Naudin Labs in France. Note that the ion bombardment method employed in Mironov’s experiment was quite different from the typical CF experiments, electrolysis-based.

In 2019, a YT lecture on CF output in the Russian Federation was delivered by Baranov and Zatelepin.^44/ It provided probably the first public access to information about the CF research in Russia.

            In 2020, a paper by Pines and colleagues appeared, entitled Nuclear fusion reactions in deuterated metals. It provides the theory for the d-D cold nuclear fusion which would occur in a small local fuel site activated by hot neutrons, and indicates the essential role of electron screening in tunneling through the Coulomb barrier.^10/ The supposition of the theory was confirmed by the work on photodissociation of deuterons in a lattice confinement fusion experiment by the Steinetz group of NASA Glenn Research Center.^12/

To summarize, low temperature techniques are competitive to the conventional reactors employing the magnetic field or inertial confinement fusion process, where extremely high temperatures are required. N.B. To simplify the difference in method of ‘hot’ fusion and ‘cold’ fusion: It is like the difference between the huge size, huge power supply consuming, magnetic focusing of electrons and the small size electrostatic focusing on channel plates – as was employed in military noctovision devices such as the once Israeli tanks or U.S. crafts. One may reasonably suppose that the ‘dirty’ calorimeter bomb will defeat the ‘clean’ descendants of Little Boy.

D.       Views and critiques of Cold Fusion

^45/ Cold Fusion: Advances in Condensed Matter Nuclear Science, edited by J.-P. Biberian, (Elsevier, 2020). eBook ISBN: 9780128159453

In 2020, Caroline Delbert the science journalist described achievements of

NASA workers after interviewing Dr. Theresa Benyo of the Glenn Research Center in

Ohio.^46/ The article depicts the work by the Steinetz-Pines group on MLP confinement,

who have given evidence of nuclear fusion.

In 2020, Leonid Schneider scoffed at granting two CF projects with 10 million euros by EU Commission.^47/ Schneider the former biologist, a free journalist and cartoonist, is the author of an amusing self-funded internet site entitled For Better Science. As a source of information it is useful though ridiculous.

In 2019, the science writer and ex-editor of Nature, physicist Philip Ball reverted to the CF topic as ‘pathological science’.^48/ It followed his temperate criticism in the obituary Martin Fleischmann (1927-2012). This 2012 evaluation was firmly refuted by Josephson the Nobel Prize winner.^49/ Also Schwinger the Nobel Prize winner, in a few publications carefully evaluated the possibility of the cold nuclear fusion effect: “The subject requires research, not fiat”.^50/

 

In 2016, the reviewer and New Energy Times’ editor, author of a White Paper, Steven Krivit published a book on LENR research.^51/ According to Krivit, the LENR topic about thermal output from room-temperature reactors bridges chemistry and physics.

In 2016, a paper entitled Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) – Sustainable and Green Energy: A Review, was presented by Md Zishan Akhter and M.A. Hassan.^52/ It has been a useful source of information on CF.

In 2012, a book appeared, by Garry McCracken and Peter Stott the followers of thermonuclear fusion in the magnetic-confinement and also inertial-confinement experiments. The CF route there was called a blind alley in “Chapter 8 – False trails”.^53/

In 2009, an interesting review article was reported by Steven Krivit and Jan Marwan, entitled A new look at low-energy nuclear reaction research.^54/

In 2008, a very useful sourcebook about CF was published by Jan Marwan and Steven Krivit.^55/

In 2006, a book by Hideo Kozima appeared: The Science of the Cold Fusion

Phenomenon.^56/ It has been an important source, which also gave a view on the work conducted at the Cold Fusion Research Laboratory, Japan.

In 2004, the second report of the panel of experts was accepted by the U.S. DOE. There was vaguely concluded that some selected topics of CF experiments were worth reviewing.

In 1993, the famous book by John Huizenga was published.^57/ The controversy about the CF problem, arisen in the scientific circle, was widely covered in the press.

In November 1989, the first report of the Cold Fusion Panel of the Energy Research Advisory Board was published.^35/ The panel was co-chaired by Huizenga and Ramsey the Nobel Prize later winner. The conclusions of its report were skeptical of the reality of CF and cautious. By contrast, Huizenga soon (clearly following Pons) debunked the CF claims by publishing a book openly titled Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century. N.B. The two co-chairs had been involved in the Manhattan Project, and next participated in well-funded applied physics programs. It may be suspected that both sides of the controversy – the hot fusion and the cold fusion – had been implicated in the then conflict of interest.

III.  THE LOW-TEMPERATURE MLP

There are several types of plasma, i.e. the highly ionized gas, which is usually defined as the fourth state of matter – different from the gas phase. The plasma of our interest is the low-temperature and the very high electron density plasma, confined in a crystal with metallic bond. Low temperature means that the metal or another structure is, in principle, remaining at room temperature. It consists of free electrons and atomic cores, i.e. the conventional positive ions. The MLP is usually defined as being anisothermal in the bulk metal phase, though within locally adiabatic surface regions it can be thermalized and the plasma equilibrated. The electrons of the surface metal phase, for which a screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential has been proposed,^27/ are nondegenerate and subject to the Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution. The hot electron energy may locally range from an eV to hundreds eV. In such a way, the MLP system constitutes a specific class of plasmas as the bicomponent, two-dimensional thermodynamic system with two degrees of freedom and zero total charge.

MLP was introduced by Raimes^20/ in 1961; for its interpretations see, for instance, Refs.^21/,22/ In moderate frequency electric fields, the MLP behaves as if having the dielectric constant lower than 1.^58/,27  This accounts for the considerable enhancement of local electric field in the surface slab, by contrast to the dielectric-type reduction. The metal surface polarization and local thermalization of electrons is possible due to the leakage of free electrons into the vacuum (so-called the Smoluchowski cloud). Our previous studies, carried out within the frame of thermodynamics, had employed a hard-sphere (crystallography based) approximation to the surface slab consisting of two or three atomic layers.^26-28/

The calculated data provide for tungsten: 10.44 eV for the Fermi energy of free electron gas, -5.82 eV for the Fermi energy level, 4.51 eV for workfunction, and the energy gaps 14.5 and 8.0 eV of self-excited metal-lattice plasma corresponding to the bulk and surface plasmons of W, respectively.^27/ (Cf. the 2.14 eV for room-temperature surface plasmons of Cu colloidal particles, gelatin stabilized.)^59/ The electron density reaches 2.7×10²⁹ m^–3 for copper, which is by one order of magnitude higher than that of the room-temperature lattice ion cores (~2×10²⁸m^–3).^27/ This can be compared to an electron density of 2×10²⁰ m^–3 as once was cited for the ITER project.^60/ Under such conditions, the electron screening of the Coulomb repulsive potential at surface atomic cores, on which assumption those calculations were based, appears essential for overcoming the barrier by protons or deuterons. Let us notice that the Coulomb interaction of the electrons is very strong and of long distance range.

In terms of thermodynamics, for the MLP with its two degrees of freedom, the free electron number density and the bulk chemical potential can be treated as two intensive parameters which are independent of the system’s size (volume). Hence, a reactor volume of the order of 10³ cm³ (calorimeter’s size) can contain ~1 g of deuterium in comparison with the 1 mg in the typical inertial confinement plasma volume. The size of a CF reactor should be increased to gain more excess heat. (About excess enthalpy see, e.g., Storms or Miles articles.)^61/

The sustainable d-D nuclear fusion occurring in the MLP confinement would proceed in much better conditions than those for the inertial confinement fusion, where the fuel (deuterium or tritium) is compressed to extremely high levels but for only a nanosecond period of time. The calculated electric field intensity for Cu^26/,27/ of the order of magnitude 100 GV/m is one million times higher than that of typical electric fields. The MLP fields are also higher than those in piezoelectric ZnO nanowire arrays for electricity generation, such as, e.g.^62/

A three-dimensional metallic wire or net with MLP, i.e. Shapiro type photonic structure, would be an interesting object of investigation to get a positive response under laser light irradiation. When the metal surface is made of a metal powder, then its area gets a huge augmentation, which is linked with a large increase in the number of thermalized electrons. One can suppose that owing to the MLP properties, by combining the accelerating net-structure surface of very high electric fields with the hot-electron mechanism (acting in the range 1meV to 1 keV), and using catalytic films or powders deuterated, next irradiated with gamma or even UV rays, the nuclear fusion should be attained at room temperature.

To conclude, it can be suggested that such an MLP plasma in the artificial net being covered with deuterated films or powders of, say Ni or Cu, may play a catalytic role in the metal lattice confinement fusion. These properties of MLP would allow for attaining an arbitrarily large amount of fusion excess enthalpy, or heat transfer energy.

IV. SUMMARY

In view of the results described in sections II.C and III, we anticipate that the low-temperature MLP within the Shapiro artificial nets, covered with catalytic thin films or powders and deuterated, could play an essential role in some CF-associated effects such as photodissociation of deuterons. We suppose that the metal lattice confinement fusion in the H and/or D-water, possibly under gamma radiation, would occur in fully effective device at room temperature.

In 1989, there was no theoretical model of cold fusion, next the CF effect has gradually become less controversial. There are several quite different approaches to nuclear fusion, but to attain the expected final result from them appears remote. Hence, it is reasonable to conduct contributory investigations of each type, including those LANR oriented. Our brief inspection of the bibliography on the limited CF area shows that there is much research work to be done in this field.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

https://blog856sasurmapapers.blogspot.com/2023/06/metal-lattice-plasma-and-nuclear-fusion.html

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=============== template 2021 (2) na dolnej ramie obrazu NMP Czestoch.

Can bicomponent metal lattice plasma play a role in so-called Cold Fusion?

Running title: Can bicomponent metal lattice plasma

Running Authors: Surma et al.

Stanislaw A. Surma^1a , Jacek Brona¹ , Mohammad M. Allaham^2b,c , Milosz Grodzicki³ , Antoni Ciszewski¹ , Marwan S. Mousa⁴

¹ University of Wroclaw, Institute of Experimental Physics, plac Maxa Borna 9, 50-204 Wroclaw, Poland

^2b Institute of Scientific Instruments of Czech Academy of Sciences, Královopolská 147, 612 64 Brno, Czech Republic

^2c Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Purkyňova 123, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic

³ Department of Semiconductor Materials Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland

⁴ Materials Science and Technology Lab., Department of Physics, Mu’tah University, Al-Karak 61710 Jordan

 

^a) Electronic mail: stan.surma5@gmail.com

In this research, discussion will consider the controversial effect of Cold nuclear Fusion (CF) which was claimed in 1989, had not been backed by theory, and initially appeared to be impossible. The conventional nuclear fusion is to produce the ‘clean’ electric energy, but feasible projects are still aiming at future implementation. The low cost CF option has been a delayed topic, but studies of CF associated effects such as those for solid state accelerators are proceeding at some research centers.

            Pines’ group have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Also the Widom-Larsen neutron theory has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect. A new metamaterial design of thin metallic wires in a three-dimensional lattice with the period of order of millimeters for far infrared optics applications was proposed by Pendry’s group in 1996. Shapiro’s group proposed a three-dimensional metallic wire lattice for solid state accelerator applications. In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in heavy water. In 2016, Mironov claimed that Ni and Cu underwent nuclear conversion under high voltage bombardment of the cathode. Basing on such results and former ones of ours, we anticipate that the low-temperature plasma in metallic wires coated with catalytic films or powders next deuterated, can play an essential role in some CF associated effects such as photodissociation of deuterons. We also suggest that the metal-lattice confinement fusion in the H and/or D water could occur by using the Shapiro nets, irradiated or bombarded, owing to the plasma as the medium of electric charge and energy carriers of the local electron number densities ~10²⁹ m^–3 and fields ~100 GV/m at the polarized surface.

 

I.         INTRODUCTION

The authors of this paper, experimental physicists, are trying to evaluate the hot problems of energy sources from their own point of view. Energy security and eco-safety crisis, which is escalating from the turn of the 20th century, causes seeking a safe and eco-friendly energy to be very urgent. The global 2019 energy output of high carbon sources (i.e. oil + coal + gas) was in excess of 84 % vs. the 16 % of low-carbon sources with the 4.3 % contribution by nuclear ones.^1/ It is beyond doubt that fossil fuel combustion should be gradually reduced. There has been steady progress in employing the ‘green’ energy sources, but environmental pollution still is growing in their full life cycle including production stage. On the other side, nuclear (fission) power plants are causing serious problems of harmful nuclear waste storage, and also in safety issues. Due to this, all nuclear power plants in Germany go into liquidation at the present time (although an extension of few years for some of these plants is done as energy sources are getting sort of scarce).

The possible solution to those problems may come from Cold nuclear Fusion or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (CF/LENR).^2/ The isotopes H and D, present in water or heavy water, could be the clean and inexhaustible fuel. Such CF option may ensure low-cost electricity and power for industry, household and transport on the ground, by sea and air.

The effect of room-temperature CF of deuterium , as occurring at electrolysis in a calorimeter set filled with heavy water solutions of alkaline salts, was claimed by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989.^3/ In the course of investigating the anomalous sorption of hydrogen into palladium crystal lattice, they were to observe portions of excess heat (excess enthalpy) produced in or at the Pd cathode.^3-6/ At the same time, a rival Jones’ group announced their own results.^7/ Next, Cravens and Rossi submitted a few patents on CF based devices, which notified of energy positive output.^8,9/ Attempts to confirm the effect claimed in several papers by other workers yielded rather unreproducible both positive and negative results.

The effect seemed to be impossible until theoretical papers had appeared, e.g.^10,11/ Among others, the Pines-Steinetz group^10,12/ had NASA funding. The authors^10/ have reported results of theoretical investigation of D-D fusion reactions in the cold fuel absorbed into metal crystal lattices. Preliminary experimental results seemed to confirm their prediction.^12/ The Widom-Larsen neutron theory^11/ has shown the possibility of neutron-catalyzed LENR effect, too. A theoretical study on the response of thick two-dimensional electron plasma slabs to incident light was carried out by Hoyer and colleagues.^13/ In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported their finding the experimental evidence for thermal neutron capture in samples of heavy water,^14/ which discovery gave the premise of room-temperature fusion.

Solid state accelerators using intrinsic electrostatic fields offer an alternative to the magnetic field or inertial confinement of energetic particles for obtaining nuclear fusion. Chen and colleagues proposed the mechanism of plasma electrons acceleration via longitudinal channeling for application to solid-state accelerators.^15/ In the 2000s, Danon’s research group investigated deuterium absorbed pyroelectric crystals as the high energy X-ray and neutron sources, dry cell battery heated, for medical applications.^16/ Putterman and colleagues of California observed nuclear fusion occurring in similar pyroelectric devices via thermal excitation of the crystal.^17/ A sort of metamaterial with novel properties, useful to apply as electromagnetic wave controlling or ray-sheathing lenses, was proposed by Pendry and colleagues.^18/ Shapiro and colleagues have employed the concept to the artificial structure of three-dimensional metallic wire lattice for acceleration of electrons.^19/

Metal-Lattice Plasma (MLP), i.e. the free electron gas in solids, has been a well-established notion in solid state physics.^20-22/ In 1986, Latham and Mousa observed experimentally the electron field-emission spectral shift due to the composite metal/insulator mechanism of hot electrons emission from micropoint arrays (a sort of metamaterial).^23/ In 1994, Mousa reported finding the influence of hydrogen gas discharge plasma on the field emission properties of microneedle arrays noted under ultrahigh vacuum conditions;^24/ about arrays also see, for instance, Wang.^25/ Then, we studied a variety of published experimental data on electron emission (work function of an electron) from standard methods, as well as the properties of MLP, and have proposed the screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential at the surface of metal.^26-28/ It seems reasonable to anticipate that the MLP in the Shapiro type three-dimensional wire system would be an interesting subject of investigating some CF-associated effects. In the next chapter, briefly described is our choice of bibliography on the limited CF area.

II.     SELECTED REPORTS on CF

The literature on the hot topic of CF is as large as hard to be found, and this review will be rather incomplete. Sources cited here may appear too subjective, but seem to be useful pieces of information on the present status of CF. Some popularizing science articles are also worth noting. The links may become inactive after a time, except for the webzines of interest.

A.       The present status of the CF phenomenon

The origins of the CF topic come, perhaps, from the scientific anticipation in the 1920s and 1930s as has been outlined by Britz in his article entitled Cold Fusion: An Historical Parallel.^29/ Prediction that water will be the source of energy to entirely replace coal was once done by Jules Verne (1828-1905) in one of his adventure novels L’Ile mysterieuse (The Mysterious Island).^30/ From reading, for instance, essays by Erik Rakhou and Rosa Puentes, one can learn about the present-day production, storage and applications of hydrogen.^31/ The CF topic itself is being regularly described on pages of some webzines.^{32- 34/}

However, the promising effect of cold nuclear fusion of H or D nuclei still remains a low-key phenomenon. The reason for is likely due to the real danger of deep crisis in global economy, transport and the governments’ policy on social and military factors – if the energy revolution were to come quick. Probably in view of that, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) accepted a report by the special Cold Fusion Panel of the Energy Research Advisory Board in 1989, which carefully suspended the topic.^35/

Anyway, research on some CF-associated topics, particularly touching military applications, e.g. in the sheathing or cloaking of objects to be invisible to radar,^41/,18/ and/or constructing CF devices for medical use,^16/,17/ have still been carried out. Research work, including Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reaction (LANR) and Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR), is performed by workers affiliated at more than a hundred of nuclear research centers – mainly from the USA, but also from the UK, Japan, Italy, and other countries. In 2013, a special web-journal devoted to experiment and theory of CF/LENR started in Russia, with some reports of 1990 not disclosed until 2020.^36/ In 2016, Mironov revealed to have attained the catalyzed nuclear conversion of powdered Ni or Cu isotopes under pulsed high voltage applied.^37/ In the same year, a review article on the water-bond photosplitting phenomenon was reported by Ryabchuk and colleagues.^38/

B.       Original reports on the CF-linked excess heat

The choice of the papers below may illustrate the complicated story of CF option. In the 1980s, Martin Fleischmann and Stan Pons investigated the anomalous hydrogen absorption in the palladium-deuterium-heavy water system, by using electrolysis in D₂O with palladium cathodes at room temperature. Both electrochemists supposed that prolonged polarization of palladium cathodes in heavy water would lead to excess heat (enthalpy) generation.

In 1989, they claimed to have observed a CF positive effect, and ascribed it to nuclear fusion.^3-6/ It was poorly evidenced in the paper and concluded that the enthalpy output was hundred times higher than that of chemical processes. This false start, committed under stress exerted by employers, was flouting scientific ethics due to violation of their agreement with rival Jones’ group to publish results simultaneously in the prestigious journal Nature.^7/ Confusion was growing after errata had been sent by the authors^3/ to their next paper^4/ with Marvin Hawkins’ name added to the previous authors list. As a result, controversy was widely arising. The excess heat output in their experiments was next either accounted for a usual chemical reaction or was assessed as being a humbug by some media affected researchers.

Jones’ group investigated the muon catalyzed nuclear fusion in the early1980s. Low-temperature nuclear fusion probably then got the label cold nuclear fusion. Before 1989 they had found a novel low-temperature way to induce nuclear fusion without intermediary muons, and quickly announced their finding in 1989.^7/ This was a study of electrolysis in the systems Pd/H₂O/D₂O and Ti/H₂O/D₂O. The paper’s title “Observation of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter” indicated that Steven Jones and colleagues had been certain of their discovery.

In 1990, Dennis Cravens applying for the U.S. patent claimed that his apparatus can provide a propulsion system for rockets, spacecraft and jets. The means was to consist in nuclear transformation of deuterium absorbed into a metal lattice. His application covered the CF energy effect used in his energy generating apparatus.^8/

In 2015, Andrea Rossi got the U.S. patent marked as Fluid Heater – after many attempts to patent the CF device based on the Ni/H system with several Ni isotopes.^9/ Rossi’s collaboration with professor Sergio Focardi gave a new impact to his concepts. That invention was once defined as the “Method and apparatus for carrying out nickel and hydrogen exothermic reaction”. In a 2010 article entitled A new energy source from nuclear fusion, Rossi and Focardi noted that no radiation from the device was detected. The Rossi-Focardi invention has been labeled as the Energy Catalyzer (E-Cat), see: Frank Acland in the Cold Fusion Now.^34/

C.       Some other reports

Most of published studies had obtained funding from government agencies. It should be noted, however, that the CF option has been still pending due to anticipated quite severe global consequences. On the other side, the topic of hydrogen storage and/or heavy water applications has been open for commercial reasons.^31/ We refer here to some reports about CF or associated effects, and add brief comments. The below order of appearance may suggest that the status of CF-associated topics undergoes a steady recovery over time.

In 1985, Chen and colleagues of the research group of John Dawson’s

announced their concept of a solid state accelerator using the channeling effect of the electron plasma.^15/ (The investigations were partly funded by U.S. DOE.) A detailed review of the channeling phenomenon occurring in the motion of charged particles through crystals was written by Gemmell.^39/

In 1986, Latham and Mousa demonstrated experimentally the field emission spectral shift, and to a smaller influence, the Full Width to the Half Maximum of these spectra are both functions of the field emitted current.^23/ Close results were reported by Mousa, Karpowicz and Surma of their studies of the composites W-epoxy resin and W-polyethylene, respectively, carried out by the techniques of high field, electron or hydrogen ion, microscopy.^40/ Those effects were interpreted as due to the hot-electron emission mechanism acting along the conducting channels in the dielectric coating, connected with the cleavage of C bonds and production of atomic hydrogen.

            In 1994, Mousa using the Field Emission Microscopy technique investigated the effect of hydrogen plasma on electron field-emission from microneedle arrays.^24/

In 1996, Pendry’s group proposed the model of an accelerating artificial metallic structure built of infinite very thin wires arranged in a simple cubic lattice with a cm period.^18/ It opened a new way to many applications to large objects, including military ones.^18/

In 1997, Chatzidimitriou-Dreismann and Mayers’ group reported discovering the short-lasting capture of thermalized neutrons in the experiment on H₂O-D₂O mixtures, by using the Compton (inelastic) neutron scattering method.^14/ This discovery provided an essential evidence for room-temperature nuclear fusion.

In 2005;2006;2007, Shapiro and colleagues employed the Pendry artificial plasma model to study the microwave response of a photonic 3D metallic wire lattice to acceleration of plasma electrons.^19/

In 2006, Wood, Pendry, and Tsai reported the metamaterial design with its invisibility properties, such as electromagnetic waves cloaking (shielding). See also Wood and Pendry (2007).^42/

In 2006, Danon and colleagues reported their observation of 2.5 MeV neutrons in D-D fusion reaction occurring in a CF system of pyroelectric paired-crystal operated as the solid state accelerator. Also, they reported attaining the X-ray endpoint energies up to 215 keV with the use of this system. Noted were results of reproducible experiments yielding up to 10⁴ neutrons per a heating cycle.^16/ Let us notice that this technique provides a direct confirmation of our interpretation of electric field enhancement in the surface phase (in a slab) with the polarized low-temperature MLP.^27/

            In 2006, the Widom-Larsen theory was published.^11/ Its essential result indicates, for weak interactions and ultralow momentum neutrons, the possibility of CF with helium and tritium final products to be detected.

In 2006, Czerski and colleagues of Berlin and Szczecin laboratories presented results of their experimental and theoretical investigation of the electron screening of Coulomb potential.^43/ The experiment covered measurements of the screening energy in the range between 150 and 300 eV for the ²H(d,p)³H reaction in several metals from lithium to tantalum. Their study confirms that the electron screening is of great importance in the processes of the low temperature plasma locally thermalization.

In 2007, a theoretical study on light affected finite-size bicomponent plasma slabs by Hoyer and colleagues appeared.^13/ Their new approach to the electromagnetic field inside plasma indicates the classical behavior of two-dimensional electron plasma, which is of importance to possible plasma applications. It is interesting to note that semi-classical approaches like those of Hoyer’s and Pines’ to MLP obtain funds from military aimed agencies such as the U.S. DOD/ONR and AFOSR together with European and German ones.

In 2016, Mironov reported the exothermic conversion of supposedly Cu^63,65 into Zn^65,67 isotopes for the Cu/D system, and Ni^58-64 to Cu for the Ni/H system. Powdered cathodes were used under the applied pulsed high potential 15 kV; no such response was observed from other tested metals.^37/ A form of radiation was detected with the use of a dosimeter, and the Me-H/D coefficient of performance (COP) was over 20. There was also cited a similar result by J.L. Naudin Labs in France. Note that the ion bombardment method employed in Mironov’s experiment was quite different from the typical CF experiments, electrolysis-based.

In 2019, a YT lecture on CF output in the Russian Federation was delivered by Baranov and Zatelepin.^44/ It provided probably the first public access to information about the CF research in Russia.

            In 2020, a paper by Pines and colleagues appeared, entitled Nuclear fusion reactions in deuterated metals. It provides the theory for the d-D cold nuclear fusion which would occur in a small local fuel site activated by hot neutrons, and indicates the essential role of electron screening in tunneling through the Coulomb barrier.^10/ The supposition of the theory was confirmed by the work on photodissociation of deuterons in a lattice confinement fusion experiment by the Steinetz group of NASA Glenn Research Center.^12/

To summarize, low temperature techniques are competitive to the conventional reactors employing the magnetic field or inertial confinement fusion process, where extremely high temperatures are required. N.B. To simplify the difference in method of ‘hot’ fusion and ‘cold’ fusion: It is like the difference between the huge size, huge power supply consuming, magnetic focusing of electrons and the small size electrostatic focusing on channel plates – as was employed in military noctovision devices such as the once Israeli tanks or U.S. crafts. One may reasonably suppose that the ‘dirty’ calorimeter bomb will defeat the ‘clean’ descendants of Little Boy.

D.       Views and critiques of Cold Fusion

^45/ Cold Fusion: Advances in Condensed Matter Nuclear Science, edited by J.-P. Biberian, (Elsevier, 2020). eBook ISBN: 9780128159453

In 2020, Caroline Delbert the science journalist described achievements of

NASA workers after interviewing Dr. Theresa Benyo of the Glenn Research Center in

Ohio.^46/ The article depicts the work by the Steinetz-Pines group on MLP confinement,

who have given evidence of nuclear fusion.

In 2020, Leonid Schneider scoffed at granting two CF projects with 10 million euros by EU Commission.^47/ Schneider the former biologist, a free journalist and cartoonist, is the author of an amusing self-funded internet site entitled For Better Science. As a source of information it is useful though ridiculous.

In 2019, the science writer and ex-editor of Nature, physicist Philip Ball reverted to the CF topic as ‘pathological science’.^48/ It followed his temperate criticism in the obituary Martin Fleischmann (1927-2012). This 2012 evaluation was firmly refuted by Josephson the Nobel Prize winner.^49/ Also Schwinger the Nobel Prize winner, in a few publications carefully evaluated the possibility of the cold nuclear fusion effect: “The subject requires research, not fiat”.^50/

 

In 2016, the reviewer and New Energy Times’ editor, author of a White Paper, Steven Krivit published a book on LENR research.^51/ According to Krivit, the LENR topic about thermal output from room-temperature reactors bridges chemistry and physics.

In 2016, a paper entitled Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) – Sustainable and Green Energy: A Review, was presented by Md Zishan Akhter and M.A. Hassan.^52/ It has been a useful source of information on CF.

In 2012, a book appeared, by Garry McCracken and Peter Stott the followers of thermonuclear fusion in the magnetic-confinement and also inertial-confinement experiments. The CF route there was called a blind alley in “Chapter 8 – False trails”.^53/

In 2009, an interesting review article was reported by Steven Krivit and Jan Marwan, entitled A new look at low-energy nuclear reaction research.^54/

In 2008, a very useful sourcebook about CF was published by Jan Marwan and Steven Krivit.^55/

In 2006, a book by Hideo Kozima appeared: The Science of the Cold Fusion

Phenomenon.^56/ It has been an important source, which also gave a view on the work conducted at the Cold Fusion Research Laboratory, Japan.

In 2004, the second report of the panel of experts was accepted by the U.S. DOE. There was vaguely concluded that some selected topics of CF experiments were worth reviewing.

In 1993, the famous book by John Huizenga was published.^57/ The controversy about the CF problem, arisen in the scientific circle, was widely covered in the press.

In November 1989, the first report of the Cold Fusion Panel of the Energy Research Advisory Board was published.^35/ The panel was co-chaired by Huizenga and Ramsey the Nobel Prize later winner. The conclusions of its report were skeptical of the reality of CF and cautious. By contrast, Huizenga soon (clearly following Pons) debunked the CF claims by publishing a book openly titled Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century. N.B. The two co-chairs had been involved in the Manhattan Project, and next participated in well-funded applied physics programs. It may be suspected that both sides of the controversy – the hot fusion and the cold fusion – had been implicated in the then conflict of interest.

III.  THE LOW-TEMPERATURE MLP

There are several types of plasma, i.e. the highly ionized gas, which is usually defined as the fourth state of matter – different from the gas phase. The plasma of our interest is the low-temperature and the very high electron density plasma, confined in a crystal with metallic bond. Low temperature means that the metal or another structure is, in principle, remaining at room temperature. It consists of free electrons and atomic cores, i.e. the conventional positive ions. The MLP is usually defined as being anisothermal in the bulk metal phase, though within locally adiabatic surface regions it can be thermalized and the plasma equilibrated. The electrons of the surface metal phase, for which a screened ‘double well’ electrostatic potential has been proposed,^27/ are nondegenerate and subject to the Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution. The hot electron energy may locally range from an eV to hundreds eV. In such a way, the MLP system constitutes a specific class of plasmas as the bicomponent, two-dimensional thermodynamic system with two degrees of freedom and zero total charge.

MLP was introduced by Raimes^20/ in 1961; for its interpretations see, for instance, Refs.^21/,22/ In moderate frequency electric fields, the MLP behaves as if having the dielectric constant lower than 1.^58/,27  This accounts for the considerable enhancement of local electric field in the surface slab, by contrast to the dielectric-type reduction. The metal surface polarization and local thermalization of electrons is possible due to the leakage of free electrons into the vacuum (so-called the Smoluchowski cloud). Our previous studies, carried out within the frame of thermodynamics, had employed a hard-sphere (crystallography based) approximation to the surface slab consisting of two or three atomic layers.^26-28/

The calculated data provide for tungsten: 10.44 eV for the Fermi energy of free electron gas, -5.82 eV for the Fermi energy level, 4.51 eV for workfunction, and the energy gaps 14.5 and 8.0 eV of self-excited metal-lattice plasma corresponding to the bulk and surface plasmons of W, respectively.^27/ (Cf. the 2.14 eV for room-temperature surface plasmons of Cu colloidal particles, gelatin stabilized.)^59/ The electron density reaches 2.7×10²⁹ m^–3 for copper, which is by one order of magnitude higher than that of the room-temperature lattice ion cores (~2×10²⁸m^–3).^27/ This can be compared to an electron density of 2×10²⁰ m^–3 as once was cited for the ITER project.^60/ Under such conditions, the electron screening of the Coulomb repulsive potential at surface atomic cores, on which assumption those calculations were based, appears essential for overcoming the barrier by protons or deuterons. Let us notice that the Coulomb interaction of the electrons is very strong and of long distance range.

In terms of thermodynamics, for the MLP with its two degrees of freedom, the free electron number density and the bulk chemical potential can be treated as two intensive parameters which are independent of the system’s size (volume). Hence, a reactor volume of the order of 10³ cm³ (calorimeter’s size) can contain ~1 g of deuterium in comparison with the 1 mg in the typical inertial confinement plasma volume. The size of a CF reactor should be increased to gain more excess heat. (About excess enthalpy see, e.g., Storms or Miles articles.)^61/

The sustainable d-D nuclear fusion occurring in the MLP confinement would proceed in much better conditions than those for the inertial confinement fusion, where the fuel (deuterium or tritium) is compressed to extremely high levels but for only a nanosecond period of time. The calculated electric field intensity for Cu^26/,27/ of the order of magnitude 100 GV/m is one million times higher than that of typical electric fields. The MLP fields are also higher than those in piezoelectric ZnO nanowire arrays for electricity generation, such as, e.g.^62/

A three-dimensional metallic wire or net with MLP, i.e. Shapiro type photonic structure, would be an interesting object of investigation to get a positive response under laser light irradiation. When the metal surface is made of a metal powder, then its area gets a huge augmentation, which is linked with a large increase in the number of thermalized electrons. One can suppose that owing to the MLP properties, by combining the accelerating net-structure surface of very high electric fields with the hot-electron mechanism (acting in the range 1meV to 1 keV), and using catalytic films or powders deuterated, next irradiated with gamma or even UV rays, the nuclear fusion should be attained at room temperature.

To conclude, it can be suggested that such an MLP plasma in the artificial net being covered with deuterated films or powders of, say Ni or Cu, may play a catalytic role in the metal lattice confinement fusion. These properties of MLP would allow for attaining an arbitrarily large amount of fusion excess enthalpy, or heat transfer energy.

IV. SUMMARY

In view of the results described in sections II.C and III, we anticipate that the low-temperature MLP within the Shapiro artificial nets, covered with catalytic thin films or powders and deuterated, could play an essential role in some CF-associated effects such as photodissociation of deuterons. We suppose that the metal lattice confinement fusion in the H and/or D-water, possibly under gamma radiation, would occur in fully effective device at room temperature.

In 1989, there was no theoretical model of cold fusion, next the CF effect has gradually become less controversial. There are several quite different approaches to nuclear fusion, but to attain the expected final result from them appears remote. Hence, it is reasonable to conduct contributory investigations of each type, including those LANR oriented. Our brief inspection of the bibliography on the limited CF area shows that there is much research work to be done in this field.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

High purity polyethylene for the samples used in several former works on the W-PE system by S.A.S. and A. Karpowicz, and S. Gluchowski, came from Wroclaw Technical University. From among authors of the present work, S.A.S. would like to thank Dr. Jan Szymański the biologist and inventor of Poland and Sweden for valuable correspondence. He also thanks Mr. Grzegorz Michalowski for discussions on proton conductivity. M.M.A. gratefully expresses his heartfelt thanks to Dr. Knápek for discussions on literature.

DATA AVAILABILITY

Data available on request from the authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.

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